RECENT ADVANCES IN THE TECHNIQUE OF PROGRESSIVE RESISTANCE EXERCISES

BY DOCTOR I. J. MacQUEEN, M.B., B.S.
Department of Anatomy, Sheffield University

THAT skeletal muscle responds to contraction against systematically increased load by increase in power and hypertrophy has long been a matter of common observation. Indeed, the legend of Milo lifting a calf every day until it grew into a bull is evidence that the principles of progressive resistance exercise have been known since ancient times. A vast amount of experimental work, chiefly by physiologists on laboratory animals, has sought to demonstrate and explain this phenomenon. (Morpurgo, 1897; Siebert, 1928, Steinhaus, 1933, Donaldson, 1935; Donaldson and Meeser, 1935; A. Hoffman, 1947. (Editor's note. The latter individual is no relation of, nor is he the Magazine Owner and Publisher of that name.)

Clinically, Progressive resistance exercise (P.R.E.) is now applied on a scientific basis, evolved partly by trial and error and partly by imitating in some measure the methods used by generations of weightlifters. DeLorme and Watkins (1951) pay tribute to these athletes by pointing out that they have supplied a "rich heritage of empirical practice" which has been applied to physical medicine. It is now realised that the amount of load used clinically for resistance exercises is often inadequate, for weightlifters and "body-builders" habitually use poundages far in excess of these in order to develop their massive hypertrophy and power, with no harmful effect in the absence of respiratory or circulatory disease.

It is not generally realised how much the actual technique of exercise has been changed in recent years, particularly by laymen practising P.R.E for the purpose of breaking Olympic Weightlifting records, or developing the skeletal musculature. It is the object of this paper to describe the regimen for producing muscle hypertrophy and muscle power, a distinction not usually made in medical literature, and to consider their clinical applications. (Editor's Note. The Weider System has been responsible for every one of the methods of training mentioned in this paper; has contributed more than any other organisation to the advancement of Scientific Exercise and Bodybuilding.)

APPARATUS.

For load resisting exercises, ordinary inexpensive disk-load-barbells and dumbbells are used . . . they are almost indestructible and are simple to adjust. The dumbbell rod, 1 in. (2.5 cm) in diameter and 18 in. (46 cm.) long can be easily adjusted for use as a swingbell when desired. Useful additions are a neck harness and a pair of iron boots. Experience has taught that this simple apparatus is better than helical springs, cycling machines, spring grips, torsion bars and other forms of apparatus.

In order to concentrate the resistance of weights on certain muscle groups, weight trainers sometimes handle the weight while lying on "incline" or "decline" benches set at varying angles. A bench, the slope of which can be adjusted, is a useful adjunct for applying refinements of technique and an ordinary gymnastic bench with hooks at one end for attachment at various levels to wall bars can be used. (EDITOR'S NOTE to Paschal. After the nonsense you've written about benches being lazy mens ways of exercising, read the opinion of a REAL expert.) A detailed description of the indications for the use of incline and decline benches is beyond the scope of the present article.

THE HYPERTROPHY OR BULK PROGRAM

As the name suggests, this programme of exercises is designed primarily to stimulate muscle hypertrophy. Although such a programme will greatly increase the strength of the exercised muscles, it will not do so to the same degree as the "power" programme described below.

The essential characteristic of the bulk programme is that all weight-lifting exercises are done in sets of lifts (or "repetitions"), the weight not being put down until the completion of a certain number (or set) of repetitions. In fact it is colloquially known among weight trainers as the "Set System." (EDITOR'S NOTE. This system is a product of the Weider System first publicised by us. Yet certain authorities say this is no good. We think we are vindicated here.) A Questionary (sic) sent to the seventeen area finalists of the 1953 "Mr. Britain" contest revealed that nearly all exercised three days a week only (Monday, Wednesday, and Friday), and used the following system of resistance repetitions.

In practically every case the weight used was the maximum that could be handled for the stated number of repetitions--for example, if three sets of ten repetitions were used then every set was done with the 10 repetitions maximum (10 R. M.--the heaviest weight which can be lifted ten times). In the past, weight trainers used to start with a weight less than the 10 R. M. and increased the load with each set of 10 repetitions until the actual 10 R. M. was reached. This method has become obsolete, as it does not produce as rapid or as great an increase in muscular bulk as the Set System employing the maximum weight that can be handled for every set of repetitions. (EDITOR'S NOTE. Needless to say, the Set System is a Weider System Training Principle which we have constantly plugged in every issue of our magazine since its inception.) Almost the only time when a less weight is used is as a "warm-up" preparatory to the proper workout. Furthermore experience has shown that if less than the 10 R. M. weight is used habitually for considerably more than ten repetitions and more than four or five sets are performed on one muscle group, then not only do the muscles fail to grow, but they may actually become smaller. In the experience of bodybuilders, such a system of "high repetition, low resistance exercise," although usually increasing stamina and muscular definition, never substantially increases muscular bulk.

For the lower limbs, particularly for the calf muscles, which are notoriously difficult to develop, exercises are done with higher repetitions. Typical examples of such schedules given on the questionary (sic) are:

To the question, "If you do your exercises in sets of, say, 8 or 10 repetitions, how often do you try to increase the amount of weight used?" the following answers were given. Once a week, 6 finalists. Every fortnight, 5 finalists. "Whenever I feel strong enough", 3 finalists. Every few weeks, 1 finalist. Between 1 to 4 weeks, 1 finalist. As soon as possible, 1 finalist. It should be noted that, only one man increased his poundage as often as possible, for this method is characteristic of the power programme and, these 17 men were bodybuilders. They were more interested in developing muscle hypertrophy than increasing power for breaking weightlifting records. The question "how often do you alter your lifting programmes?" brought the following answers. Every 4 weeks, 1 finalist. Every 4-6 weeks, 1 finalist. Every 6-8 weeks, 1 finalist. Every 2 months, 3 finalists. Every 3 months, 2 finalists. Once a year, 1 finalist. Whenever I feel stale and have reached a sticking point on a schedule, 8 finalists. Frequent change in exercise routine, by varying the type of movements and sets of repetitions, is essential to prevent boredom and staleness, and, what is more important, to ensure continued progress. (EDITOR'S NOTE: This is exactly what we have constantly pointed out, and is put in almost exactly the same words used by one of my foremost staff writers.)

REFINEMENTS OF TECHNIQUE IN THE HYPERTROPHY PROGRAM

There are many refinements in the actual technique of exercise but only the most important are mentioned here.

1. FLUSHING. Flushing is a method of exercising which is employed in the belief that it keeps the exercised muscles well flushed with blood throughout the exercise period. After carrying out the usual regimen for a particular muscle group, say three sets of 8 repetitions on a movement in the vertical plane -- for example the slow curl as defined in the Official Handbook of the British Amateur Weight lifters Association -- the exercise is changed, and using the same group of muscles the weights are raised and lowered as in the "upright rowing" exercise. Alternatively, they may be grasped with the knuckles forward instead of backward (the "rectangular fix"). This method produces very rapid increase in muscle size. A temporary increase of as much as 1½ in. (3.8 cm) can be made to the circumference of the upper arm in half an hour with this method of exercise. (EDITOR'S NOTE to John C. Grimek. In view of your recent reply to a correspondent in the magazine for which you write, do you not now agree that your reply showed a lack of knowledge of body and muscle function? And do you still insist that you have never used either the Set or Flushing Systems?)

2. "MUSCLE CRAMPING." Muscle Cramping is often practised immediately after flushing. More weight than can be managed over the full range of elbow flexion is added to the apparatus, which is then moved over a part of the full range. Alternatively, complete movements are first performed with a light weight, then as the muscles tire, the action is shortened so that finally a motion of only a few inches is executed while the muscle is already almost completely contracted. This procedure can be tolerated for only a very few minutes, as the muscles soon start to ache intensely, probably because they are working under relatively ischaemic conditions. (EDITOR'S NOTE. In case Paschal claims this principle for his own, be it noted that Weider Publications first publicised this in both Muscle Power and Your Physique in 1947) Very often a mottled flushing of the overlying skin occurs, similar in appearance to the "flare" of the "triple response". Sometimes even small subcutaneous blebs (sic) of oedema fluid may appear. Possibly the flare is produced by the accumulation of metabolites or by the liberation of a histamine-like substance within the muscle, causing local arteriolar dilation by means of an axon reflex. It is very important that immediately after this form of exercise, the muscles should be fully stretched so as to avoid any permanent shortening (muscle binding) due to their being exercised over a limited range. For example in the case of the biceps, the elbow should be fully pronated and extended and the upper arm abducted to a right angle, and then extended with a series of jerking movements, thus stretching the muscle fully.

USE OF A MIRROR. Bodybuilders are often derided as "looking glass athletes" because they sometimes exercise in front of a mirror. But by exercising in front of a mirror the muscles can be watched as they contract and the athlete is thus able to concentrate very intensely on the performance of the exercise, and consequently can very often handle more weight in front of a mirror than away from it. The underlying physiological reason adduced for this practice is to achieve cortical awareness of the muscles exercised, and, in order to get the proper feel of the muscle in the cramping described above, the exerciser must practise by assuming slightly different positions until he is aware of the muscles being forced into extreme contraction. (EDITOR'S NOTE. I'd like to draw Paschal's attention to this paragraph on the use of a mirror. While he can only insult bodybuilders, we can point out the benefits in a sensible manner.) The incomparable Sandow was famed for his ability to flick at will practically any muscle in the body, and he claimed that this was one of the secrets of his outstanding development. The muscle flicking alone did not develop his muscles; it was the practice of muscle control while actually lifting weights that was responsible for his success. Every successful bodybuilder since Sandow has had to master this technique of forcing the muscles into extreme contraction while lifting heavy weights for it appears to be essential for, maximal muscle hypertrophy. This technique comes easily to some, and they are often the "natural" strong men who seem to augment their musculature much more quickly than men who have difficulty in mastering this technique. But for the best results it must be mastered, and practice before a mirror is the surest way. Exponents of muscle control acquire a highly developed kinesthetic awareness. By lifting heavy weights in front of a mirror, the physical cultureist improves his motor learning and is able to lift more weight. (EDITOR'S NOTE. Our italics.)

"PEAK CONTRACTION PRINCIPLE." Exercising a muscle so that resistance is maximal at the peak of contraction has long been known by weight lifters to produce rapid gains in size and strength. For example in the knee extension exercise with the Iron Boot (EDITOR'S NOTE. Part of every Weider Gym set and Super Power Set.) resistance is maximal when the knee is completely extended -- that is at the peak of contraction of the quadriceps (and particularly of the vastus medialis). The principle is also applied to the elbow flexors by employing the peak contraction barbell (EDITOR'S NOTE. Or the Weider Leverage Bell) Another variation is to perform elbow-flexion movements with a dumbbell while seated and leaning forwards ("seated dumbbell curl"). In this way the forearm does not come above the horizontal position, even at the end of the movement. By the use of a little ingenuity the principle can be applied to other muscle groups.

CHEATING. Contraction of a single muscle to the complete exclusion of all others is most difficult, even for the expert at muscle control who spends many hours practising in front of a mirror. Bodybuilders have found that increasing the load so that it becomes necessary to "cheat" in order to perform an exercise--for example by back bending and the widespread recruitment of neighbouring muscle groups -- often does more to develop the particular muscle at which the exercise is primarily aimed than performing the same exercise in "strict" style, with the virtual exclusion of other muscle groups and using less poundage. (EDITOR'S NOTE. Our italics- The Weider System was the first to utilize the valuable benefits of Cheating Movements, and indeed originated the Training Principle. Yet we note that Bob Hoffman's system, and in fact Bob himself, says that a cheating exercise is a poor exercise for a lot of muscles. Following this line of logic we must assume that Bob believes a two hands clean and jerk, or two hands snatch are also poor movements since they utilize many muscle groups to lift a weight overhead in the easiest possible manner.) They cannot explain why this is so, but experience has proved that it is. It is part of their "rich heritage of empirical practice." Perhaps the cheating method, which enables a greater weight to be handled, although recruiting the contraction of neighboring muscles, makes a greater demand on the particular muscle being developed than does the method of lifting the maximum weight that can be handled in strict style.

From the consideration of these techniques, two fundamental principles emerge. 1, the use of as great as resistance as possible over a relatively large number of repetitions, and 2, the concentration of the will on producing extreme contraction of a muscle while it is working against great and increasing resistance.

THE POWER PROGRAMME

This type of weight training schedule is the one practised by aspirants to National and Olympic titles who strive to lift maximal weights. The weightlifter is interested in power and not the massively muscular hypertrophy of the bodybuilder, and his training methods differ accordingly. . . But just as the bodybuilder, concentrating on a bulk programme, will concomitantly develop power far in excess of the untrained man, so will the weightlifter develop a certain degree of muscular bulk although following a power programme. Many weight trainers of course, use both types of programme, frequently alternating one with the other. . . In this way they succeed in developing an impressive, powerful and symmetrical physique and probably become good enough lifters to compete in National contests. Indeed, it is believed, probably correctly, that the bodybuilder cannot develop a perfect physique by bulk schedules alone, and the top-class weightlifter needs to incorporate in his training bodybuilding or assistance exercises before starting serious training for competitive weightlifting.

The power programme is essentially one of decreasing numbers of repetitions performed with increasing resistance. Thus, starting with ten repetitions with the 10 R. M. on a particular exercise, the weight is increased by 10-20 pounds (4.5-9 Kg) for the next set. Probably only 8 or even fewer repetitions will be possible with the heavier weight. A further increase of 10-20 lb. (4.5-9 Kg) is made and as many repetitions as possible are performed, perhaps now only 5 or 6. The weight is continually increased in this fashion and as many repetitions as possible done until it is so heavy that it can be lifted only once. This is the lifter's personal record for that lift, or the "1 repetition maximum" (1 R. M.) of De Lorme (1945). As the 1 R. M. is approached the increments in the weight are made smaller so that perhaps towards the end of the workout, an increase of only 5-2½ lb (2.7 or 1.3 Kg) is made between 1 set of repetitions and the next.

Having reached 1 R. M. the lifter may then make 2 or 3 attempts at lifting a weight which exceeds his 1 R. M. by about 5 lb (2.3 Kg) Although not succeeding at first, the idea is to get the feel of the heavier weight, and with constant practice the day comes when he succeeds and establishes a new 1 R. M. By this time strength has usually increased so that he has also broken his 10 R. M. and is now able to start his workout by doing ten repetitions with a weight perhaps 10 lb (4.5 Kg) heavier than his original 10 R. M. The frequency with which 1 R. M.'s are broken and new ones established depends on many factors, which include the natural lifting ability, intensity and frequency of practice, adequacy of food and sleep, temperament and the amount of competition -- for example, performance put up by fellow lifters in the club -- number of "off" days, etc.

Not every lifter attempts to exceed or even to reach his 1 R. M. at every workout; some attempt it only once a week, others once a fortnight or even less often. But many do attempt it "as often as possible," and seem to get good results in terms of increased power and ability to set new records. Weightlifters seldom start a workout with as many as 10 repetitions; 8 usually is the maximum and a proportion of lifters seldom exceed 6 repetitions. Generally weightlifters tend to exercise more often than bodybuilders. 5 days a week is not uncommon, and more rarely 6 or even 7. The bodybuilders believe that alternate days of rest are essential for the anabolism of new muscle tissue, whereas a weightlifter can go on increasing in strength without concomitant increase in bulk.

REFINEMENTS OF TECHNIQUE IN THE POWER PROGRAMME

"WASHER" or "MINIATURE DISK" TECHNIQUE. Instead of a 5 lb (2.3 Kg), increase after reaching 1 R. M. many lifters adopt the washer or miniature disk technique. Large iron washers weighing ¼ lb (110 G.) each, are placed one on each end of the barbell. As the new weight now exceeds the, 1 R. M. by only about ½ lb (220 G) is subsequently added throughout the whole range of the next series of descending repetitions --for example 10, 8, 6, 4, 3, 2, repetitions --at the completion of which two washers are placed on each end of the bar for the 1 R. M. The process is then repeated.

Decreasing numbers of repetitions with increasing poundage, together with frequent attempts at increasing the weights used, particularly for the 1 R. M., is the key to development of power. This principle can be employed in an almost infinite variety of ways, and is exemplified in the following training schedules:

Work up to 6 singles then increase the weight by 2½-5 lb (1.3-2.7 Kg) throughout the series.

SCHEDULE 2. Starting with the 6 R. M. and by decreasing the repetitions and increasing the poundage, work up to 1 R. M., the following is carried out 1-1-1-1-1 . . . 1-2-1-1-1 . . . 1-1-2-1-1 . . . 1-1-1-2-1 . . . 1-1-1-1-2-1 . . . 1-1-1-1-1-2 . . . then add 5 lbs (2.3 Kg) and revert to 6 single repetitions.

NEW EXPERIMENTAL SCHEDULES

New training methods are always being tried and two of the more interesting on trial are here described. The first is a heavy-and-light method in which low repetitions are performed with maximum poundage and cheating allowed if necessary, for about 3 sets of 5 repetitions only. This is followed by decreasing the weight and performing a single set of high repetitions -- for example -- 20 in strict style. A modification of this "heavy-and-light" system is the "Multi-Poundage" method, in which the lifter does a few repetitions with a heavy weight, and just as he is failing, say at about the 6th lift, assistants slide a disc off each end of the bar bell. The lifter continues without resting, and as soon as he starts to fail with the lighter weight (say after 3 or 4 repetitions) two more discs are removed by the assistants, and so on, until the 20 repetitions have been performed. Another way is to start with a light weight, and after every 3 or 4 repetitions a disc is added to each end of the barbell until the lifter fails. Although effective, these methods have the disadvantage of requiring two watchful assistants, and are limited to two handed exercises with a barbell, or the deep knee bend with barbell across the shoulders.

The second system is one which already seems to promise quite revolutionary gains in strength and bulk. It is the "every day--hourly workout". Only 1 to 2 sets of the 10 R. M. are performed every hour until 10 sets have been completed. This is done every day except for one rest day a week. Using a system of this type, a 20 year old American who started weight lifting only about a year ago, has already broken by a wide margin, several weightlifting records in the heavy weight class. (EDITOR'S NOTE. This system was first used by a British lifter, R. Walker in the 1930's.)

APPLICATIONS

Most weight lifters participate in other physical activities besides lifting weights, such as running, swimming, gymnastics etc., for they find that only by mixing other sports with weightlifting can perfect proportions and fitness be achieved. Moreover weight training improves their performances in these other sports. A National Weightlifting Coach has been appointed under the Ministry of Education Coaching scheme and the Amateur Athletic Association has adopted weighttraining officially as a means of preparation for athletics. Weight Training for strength in sports and athletics is far more widely and intensely practised in those countries that led the field in the last two Olympic Games. The number of Olympic Athletes who incorporate the principles in their basic training increases yearly (Nicol, 1954; MacQueen, 1954.) Its application to the physical improvement of university students and school boys is also being extended (Adamson, 1952, 1953; Adamson and Morgan, 1954).

As regards physical medicine, De Lorme and Watkins (1951) in their admirable work on the subject have stressed the superiority of weights over other apparatus. Strength and muscular development comparable to that of thousands of modern weight trainers has not been produced in an individual by a "dynometer" or the other complex machines often used in physical medicine.

It will be noted that, in the set system described above, the weight used in every set was the maximum that could be handled for the stated number of repetitions--for example 3 sets of 10 R. M. This differs fundamentally from the method of De Lorme and Watkins (1948) in which a fraction of the 10 R. M. is recommended for the 1st and 2nd sets (½ and ¾ of the 10 R. M. respectively). As the "maximum" method has been proved to bring quicker and greater gains in strength and hypertrophy, it might be used with advantage in the medical application of P. R. E., in preference to the fractional system, which after long trial has been almost abandoned by weight-trainers. Also whereas De Lorme and Watkins recommend exercising on 5 consecutive days a week, only 3 days, and these alternating with rest days, are used in the hypertrophy programme. In addition to the probable production of results, this programme would reduce the necessary number of visits by the patient to the clinic.

Frequent change in exercise routine has been proved to be essential to ensure progression in the enthusiastic physical cultureist. It is therefore important to vary the programme for patients, particularly as many lack the enthusiasm for a heavy exercise routine.

It is suggested that exercising before a mirror might prove to be a valuable aid to motor learning for patients unaccustomed to the intense contraction of localised muscle groups against heavy resistance. If the methods were combined with attempts at forcing the exercised muscles into extreme contraction, even better results might be obtained.

De Lorme (1945) has observed that when the knee extension exercise is performed with an iron boot, the resistance is maximal at the peak of contraction of the quadriceps, whereas with pulleys, the resistance diminishes as the quadriceps is contracted. It might prove profitable to devise movements for applying the Peak Contraction Principle (EDITOR'S NOTE. This is another training principle originated by the Weider System and the Weider Research Clinic.) to other muscle groups.

The success of the CHEATING METHOD (EDITOR'S NOTE. One more training Principle discovered and publicised by the Weider System and Research Clinic.) suggests that the importance at present attached in physical medicine to the strict performance of an exercise may be unjustified and it may be undesirable to induce patients to try to use a single muscle without employing neighbouring groups. (EDITOR'S NOTE. We think that this effectively proves that the Weider System is right when it teaches Cheating Movements, and that Bob Hoffman is wrong when he says that Cheating movements are no good. In other words, as a teacher and coach, he just doesn't know what he's talking about, and his advice is USELESS!).

In any case, for the patient with diseased muscles and impaired innervation, with no previous experience, it is often impossible to use a single muscle. Conversely, the vigorous contraction of neighbouring muscles against heavy resistance, may involve a diseased muscle and thus promote contractions of a strength that a patient could not otherwise produce in it. Watkins (1948) has suggested that "cross education might serve as a useful therapeutic tool in cases in which volitional control is unilaterally defective, or in which contralateral muscle groups are rendered temporarily inaccessible through immobilization." Contraction of neighbouring muscles might be even more effective than contralateral groups.

CONCLUSION

Which type of schedule therefore should be used -- the "hypertrophy" or the "power"? Power is more representative of function than hypertrophy and more likely to be appreciated by the patient than bulk alone. But continued observation of patients in whom normal strength had been restored in the quadriceps muscle, but who had not regained normal thigh volume, revealed that their strength often deteriorated more rapidly than did that of patients who had also regained normal muscle volume, and, moreover, hospital re-admission was more frequent among men who had not recovered normal muscle volume (De Lorme and Watkins, 1951). (EDITOR'S NOTE to Bob Hoffman and Paschal. In view of expert opinion, which has conclusively demonstrated here that the bulk training of Bodybuilders has greater merit than pure power training, don't you think it's about time you stopped knocking modern methods, and brought your own system and opinions up-to-date?)

Only after the distinction between the two basic types of schedule is realized and the details of lay technique are mastered can we hope to juggle successfully with the enormous variety of resistance repetition combinations.

SUMMARY

Weights are superior to other, more complex, apparatus for developing skeletal muscle.

There is a distinction between the type of exercise programme used by weight-trainers to develop muscular hypertrophy and that used to develop power. In the hypertrophy programme, muscle groups are exercised on alternate days, in 3 or 4 sets of 8 to 10 lifts, the weight used being the maximum that can be handled for the given number of lifts. If more sets and lifts are habitually used, the optimum resistance-repetition combination for producing hypertrophy is exceeded, and the muscles may even become smaller.

In the power programme, the commencing weight is never less than the maximum that can be lifted ten times. The weight is increased between each set of lifts, and the number of repetitions consequently decreases. Eventually the weight is so heavy that it can be lifted only once. Frequent attempts are made to increase the weights used.

Important refinements of technique, including "flushing" . . . "cramping" . . . "cheating" . . . use of a mirror, and application of the "Peak Contraction" principle are described in detail, and two new experimental schedules are outlined.

Possible clinical applications of these techniques are discussed.

EDITOR'S NOTE. We urge all our readers to obtain a copy of the Weider System. Read it, then compare it with this article. See how the very bodybuilding terms and principles which we originated, publicised and advocated for years, are approved by Doctor Ian MacQueen.